Objects preserve history differently than texts. A coin, a manuscript, an inscription, a synagogue wall, a household vessel, a fragment lifted from the ground — each holds something a written account can miss: who made it, what it was for, how ordinary people actually lived, what was kept and what was destroyed. A text records what someone chose to set down; an object often preserves what no one thought to write. So the question to carry through this gallery is a simple one: what does each piece let us know that a textbook alone could not? Read the objects below as evidence to look at — not illustrations to look past.
The Holocaust itself is taught, and taught well, by the institutions built for it — the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum and Yad Vashem chief among them, and this collection points to their archives throughout. What it gathers here is the rest of the story: the long Jewish civilization that came before, and the world that continued after. The objects run from the ancient Near East to the present, with one gallery on how words and images were used to make prejudice look normal — the mechanism, not only its worst hour.
Three meters of granite carved for the pharaoh Merneptah around 1207 BCE to boast of his victories. In line 27, among the peoples he claims to have crushed, one name appears: Israel. It is the earliest mention of Israel found anywhere outside the Bible — and it survives because an enemy carved it, in stone, to brag.
Egyptian Museum, Cairo (JE 31408) · sculpture public domain by age · Full story in The Land of Israel ↗
Made in the Kingdom of Judah during the First Temple period, found by the hundreds in ordinary homes. Here is why it matters: it is exactly the kind of object the Hebrew Bible condemns. The prophets thundered against household images and fertility cults — and this is the physical evidence that ordinary people made and kept them anyway. It shows that the monotheism we now take for granted was not a settled fact in ancient Judah but an argument still being fought, house by house.
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York · Gift of Harris D. and H. Dunscombe Colt, 1934 · public domain (CC0). Met collection ↗
This is the oldest object in the museum, made some 8,000 years before the rest. It belongs to the Yarmukian culture, the Neolithic farmers who lived at Sha'ar HaGolan in the Jordan Valley and were among the first anywhere in the land to make pottery. It marks the deep prehistory of the ground on which the later story unfolds: people were shaping clay into figures by a riverbank here thousands of years before the first city, the first king, or the first scroll.
The figure is read as a goddess. Among these early farming communities, some of the first images that may show gods took the form of clay figures of a female body. Her eyes, shaped like grains of cereal or date pits, are read as signs of fertility; faint traces of red pigment that still survive, as earth and life; and her tall headgear echoes the headgear worn by rulers and gods in the art of the ancient Near East.
Goddess figurine, Sha'ar HaGolan, Israel · Pottery Neolithic period, Yarmukian culture, c. 8,000 years BP · clay · Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA 2002-1187) · object public domain by age. Israel Museum record ↗
Carved for Mesha, king of Moab — a kingdom east of the Dead Sea, in what is now Jordan — to boast that his god had helped him throw off the rule of Israel. It names the kingdom of Israel and its king Omri, and is widely read as referring to the "House of David." It is one of the longest inscriptions of its kind ever found, and like the Merneptah Stele, it records Israel because a rival wanted to brag about beating it.
Musée du Louvre, Paris (AO 5066) · basalt, c. 840 BCE · stele public domain by age. Louvre collection ↗
Found smashed and reused in a wall at Tel Dan in northern Israel. It was carved not by an Israelite but by an enemy — an Aramean king from what is now Syria — boasting that he had killed kings of Israel and Judah. The reason it matters is one phrase in the broken lines: "House of David." It is among the earliest mentions of David's dynasty found anywhere outside the Bible, written by someone with no reason to invent it.
The Israel Museum, Jerusalem · basalt victory stele, made in Aram (Syria), 9th century BCE · public domain by age. Israel Museum record ↗
This stone panel once lined an entire room in the palace of the Assyrian king Sennacherib at Nineveh, in what is now Iraq. It shows his siege of Lachish, a fortified city of Judah, in 701 BCE — the same campaign the Bible describes from Judah's side (2 Kings 18). Here the king sits enthroned as the spoils and captives of a Judahite city are paraded before him. It is the enemy's own picture of a moment in Judah's history.
The British Museum, London · gypsum wall panel from Nineveh, c. 700–681 BCE · public domain by age. British Museum record ↗
The assault itself, from the same palace series: Assyrian soldiers drive battering rams up earthen ramps while archers cover them and the defenders of the Judahite city fight from the walls. It is the most detailed surviving picture of ancient siege warfare — and the army it shows is the one Sennacherib turned next toward Jerusalem in 701 BCE. Its full story is told in The Land of Israel.
The British Museum, London · gypsum wall panel from Nineveh, c. 700–681 BCE · public domain by age. British Museum record ↗
A potsherd used as scrap paper — the cheap writing surface of the ancient world — carrying a letter written in ink in the Hebrew of the Kingdom of Judah. The Lachish letters were written in the last days before the Babylonian army destroyed Judah around 586 BCE. This is not an enemy's record but Judah's own voice: ordinary military correspondence, in the actual hand and language of First Temple Judah, at the edge of catastrophe.
The British Museum, London · inked clay ostracon, Lachish, c. 590 BCE · public domain by age. British Museum record ↗
A personal seal — the size of a fingertip — cut from black stone with the figure of an archer drawing his bow and a name in old Hebrew letters: Hagab, identified as a commander of the archery division in the army of Judah. Seals like this were pressed into wet clay to mark ownership and authority. It is a single named person reaching out of the First Temple period: not a king or a prophet, but an officer in Judah's army, signing his name.
The Israel Museum, Jerusalem · engraved stone seal, Judah · public domain by age. Israel Museum record ↗
Roughly 25,000 fragments preserved in eleven Qumran caves above the Dead Sea, discovered between 1947 and 1956. The Hebrew Bible texts among them — including a complete Isaiah scroll — predate the next-oldest Hebrew Bible manuscripts by about a thousand years. They show how closely the text was preserved across the gap from the Second Temple period to the medieval codices.
Image: Great Isaiah Scroll, The Israel Museum, Jerusalem (public domain) · Museum record ↗ · Digital Dead Sea Scrolls ↗
Carved in Rome around 81 CE, this relief on the Arch of Titus shows Roman soldiers carrying the spoils of the Second Temple in the triumphal procession after the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE — the seven-branched Menorah at the center, with the Table of the Shewbread and silver trumpets. It is among the earliest surviving depictions of the Temple Menorah, and the monument by which Rome recorded its conquest of Judea. The arch still stands at the entrance to the Roman Forum.
Arch of Titus, Roman Forum · photograph (public domain) · documented by the Arch of Titus Project, Yeshiva University ↗
Struck during the Second Jewish Revolt against Rome, this silver coin shows the Temple of Jerusalem on one face — destroyed by the Romans sixty years earlier in 70 CE — and the four species used at the festival of Sukkot on the reverse. The inscription reads "Year Two of the Freedom of Israel." Most surviving examples were minted on Roman coins, the imperial portraits hammered away beneath.
Harvard Art Museums (Arthur M. Sackler Museum) · View the coin ↗ · More coins of the revolt ↗ · Ashmolean Museum, Oxford ↗ · Lecture: David Hendin, American Numismatic Society ↗
Excavated in eastern Syria in 1932, this third-century synagogue contained extensive figural wall paintings depicting biblical scenes — Moses, Exodus, the binding of Isaac, the prophet Ezekiel. The paintings overturned the assumption that ancient Jewish communities universally prohibited figurative art. The murals are preserved at the National Museum of Damascus.
Image: Dura-Europos synagogue paintings (public domain) · National Museum of Damascus · Yale University Art Gallery ↗
Written in Tiberias around 930 CE, the Aleppo Codex is one of the oldest and most important known Hebrew Bible manuscripts, established by Aaron ben Asher and Moses ben Asher. Maimonides used it as the authoritative reference for his rulings on Torah scroll preparation. Kept in Aleppo from the 14th century until 1947 — when communal violence damaged it and parts went missing — the surviving portions are housed at the Israel Museum.
Israel Museum, Jerusalem · Memory of the World Register · Digital edition ↗
A colophon fragment from a medieval commentary on Genesis, one of approximately 400,000 fragments preserved in the storeroom of the Ben Ezra Synagogue in Old Cairo and removed to Cambridge in 1896. The Geniza contains everything from biblical manuscripts to grocery lists, letters, marriage contracts, and trade ledgers — a complete window into medieval Mediterranean Jewish life.
University of Pennsylvania Libraries · Halper Collection · Penn Libraries ↗ · OPenn high-res images ↗
A fragment of the Passover Haggadah from the Cairo Geniza. The Haggadah is the liturgical text read on the first night of Passover, recounting the Exodus from Egypt. Versions from the medieval Mediterranean differ in detail from later European editions, revealing local liturgical traditions and the continuity of a ritual practiced annually for two thousand years.
Cairo Geniza · Cambridge University Library · Cambridge Digital Library ↗
Moses Maimonides (Rambam, 1138–1204) — born in Córdoba, physician at the court in Cairo — produced the Mishneh Torah, an attempt to organize the entire body of Talmudic law into a single, systematically arranged Hebrew code. He wrote at the meeting point of Jewish, Islamic, and Greek learning, and his works were read across all three worlds. Surviving manuscripts, including pages in his own hand from the Cairo Geniza, are held in major research libraries.
Image: Mishneh Torah manuscript, Perugia, c. 1400 · View related manuscript: Digital Bodleian, University of Oxford ↗ · see also the Law and Ethics Topic
The oldest synagogue in Egypt, in Fustat (Old Cairo). Its hekhal is decorated in Arabesque style and inlaid with mother of pearl — a merging of artistic traditions — with the Ten Commandments inscribed in Hebrew. Its storeroom, or geniza, accumulated documents over roughly 850 years; discovered in the 1890s, those fragments became the Cairo Geniza now studied in libraries worldwide — including the fragments shown elsewhere in this gallery.
Explore (with virtual tour): Egyptian Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities ↗
An illuminated Passover Haggadah made in Spain around 1350 — one of the most celebrated surviving Sephardic manuscripts, with painted miniatures and gold leaf. It left Spain with the expulsion of 1492, surfaced in Sarajevo in the nineteenth century, and survived both the Second World War and the 1990s siege of Sarajevo — twice hidden by Muslim librarians to protect it. A single object that carries the whole arc of Sephardic history: flourishing, expulsion, diaspora, and survival.
National Museum of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Sarajevo · widely reproduced; the manuscript is medieval and in the public domain National Museum of Bosnia and Herzegovina ↗ More on this · ANU ↗
Signed by Ferdinand and Isabella four months before Columbus sailed, the Edict of Expulsion gave the Jews of Spain four months to convert to Catholicism or leave. Some 200,000 chose exile, scattering across the Ottoman Empire, North Africa, the Low Countries, and the New World. The Sephardi diaspora — and the Ladino language — date from this moment.
Archivo General de Simancas · Original held in Spain. Archivo General de Simancas ↗ Background · History.com ↗
Established by Venetian Senate decree on March 29, 1516, the Geto Nuovo island was the first formally designated Jewish quarter in Europe — and the place from which the word ghetto takes its name. The buildings rise unusually tall because the Jewish population could not expand the island's seven-acre footprint outward; floors were halved and added vertically across three centuries to accommodate growth.
Jewish Museum of Venice, at the ghetto site · Museo Ebraico di Venezia ↗
Gian Pietro Carafa (1476–1559). On July 14, 1555, two months after his election, he issued Cum nimis absurdum — the papal bull codifying the ghetto system across the Papal States. The bull confined Roman Jews to a walled quarter, required identifying yellow hats, restricted them to certain trades, and mandated compulsory Catholic sermons. The Roman Ghetto persisted until 1888.
Public-domain engraving · The bull he issued, Cum nimis absurdum, appears in the Antisemitism · Primary-Source Evidence gallery.
The title page of the Opera Posthuma (1677), the posthumous collected works of Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677), which first published his Ethics. Born into the Sephardic Jewish community of Amsterdam — descendants of Jews expelled from Iberia — Spinoza became a foundational figure of modern European philosophy and a forerunner of the Enlightenment. The volume was printed anonymously (the author given only as “B.d.S.”) because of the controversy his ideas provoked.
First edition, 1677 · public domain · see also the Philosophy and Science Topic
A ketubah — a Jewish marriage contract — from Ancona, Italy, 1777, written in ink on vellum. The text of Psalm 45 frames the document in green ink, and it is surrounded by painted biblical scenes: the binding of Isaac, Esther before the king, Judith with the head of Holofernes, with the four traditional crowns at the corners. The decorated ketubah began as a distinctly Sephardic practice in fourteenth-century Spain; in the Ottoman Empire, Jewish artists blended Hebrew text with Islamic decorative styles, sometimes adding a star and crescent at the apex. Jewish material culture as art and craft — the ordinary documents of a life, made beautiful.
Image: Ancona ketubah, 1777, historical manuscript reproduction · View & learn: Beinecke Library, Yale (1777 ketubah) ↗ · UW Stroum Center — Sephardic ketubot ↗
Captain Alfred Dreyfus, a French Jewish artillery officer, was convicted of treason in 1894 on forged evidence and exiled to Devil's Island. Émile Zola's open letter J'Accuse…! (1898) split France for a decade. Dreyfus was eventually exonerated in 1906. The affair is widely cited as the moment when racialized antisemitism became publicly legible as a political force in modern European life.
Bibliothèque nationale de France · Archives nationales · BnF Gallica ↗
Schechter, then a Cambridge scholar, was permitted in 1896 to remove the contents of the Ben Ezra Synagogue's storeroom — roughly 400,000 fragments — and ship them to Cambridge for study. The Geniza collection has been parsed for more than a century, and continues to yield new historical material. This photograph shows the scale of the undertaking.
Cambridge University Library · Genizah Research Unit · Cambridge Genizah Unit ↗
The institutional photographic record of the Jewish civilization of Eastern Europe — the YIVO archives in Vilna, the Frank Family papers, the Roman Vishniac photographs of Polish Jewry on the eve of war. Roughly five million Jews lived in Eastern Europe in 1939. By 1945, the world they had built across a thousand years was all but gone.
Image: archival photograph from YIVO-related Eastern European Jewish life collections · Explore the archives: Roman Vishniac Archive (ICP) ↗ · YIVO Institute ↗ · YIVO Encyclopedia ↗ · USHMM
Photographed in 1921, the year he received the Nobel Prize in Physics. Einstein (1879–1955) reshaped modern physics with the theories of relativity. He was also one of many European Jewish scientists whose lives were upended by the Nazi rise to power: he left Germany in 1933 and never returned, settling at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton. His career sits at the meeting point of two threads on this site — Jewish participation in modern science, and the displacement of European Jewry.
Portrait by Ferdinand Schmutzer, 1921 · public domain · see also the Philosophy and Science Topic
The Nuremberg Race Laws of September 1935 stripped German Jews of citizenship and prohibited their marriage to non-Jews — the legal architecture that made the Final Solution administratively possible. Ten years later, in the same city, the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg tried the surviving Nazi leadership for crimes against humanity. Both documents are in the USHMM permanent record.
United States Holocaust Memorial Museum · Holocaust Encyclopedia ↗
Construction of the Warsaw Ghetto wall under Nazi-German occupation, August 1940 — 385 years after Pope Paul IV codified the Italian ghetto system, seventy years after Italian unification ended it. The institutional vocabulary was inherited directly. The function had shifted decisively from confinement to extermination. By the end of the war, more than 90 percent of Warsaw's Jewish population had been killed.
United States Holocaust Memorial Museum · Holocaust Encyclopedia ↗
The United Nations General Assembly Resolution partitioning the British Mandate of Palestine into an Arab state and a Jewish state. Passed 33 to 13 with 10 abstentions. The State of Israel was declared on May 14, 1948 — the first sovereign Jewish state since the Roman destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE.
United Nations Archives · UN Audiovisual Library · UN Resolution 181 (II) ↗
On 14 May 1948, in a Tel Aviv museum hall, David Ben-Gurion read out the declaration that established the modern State of Israel; outside, crowds filled the streets. The photograph catches the public moment of a founding that reshaped where the world's Jews live — today roughly half of them live in the state declared that afternoon.
Hans Pinn / Government Press Office of Israel · CC BY-SA 3.0 · see also The Modern State of Israel
Between 1948 and the early 1970s, roughly 850,000 Jews were displaced from Arab and Muslim-majority countries — Iraq, Egypt, Libya, Yemen, Morocco, Tunisia, Syria, Algeria. Communities present for more than two thousand years effectively ended within a generation.
Image: Yemenite Jewish family walking toward a Joint Distribution Committee reception camp near Aden, 1949 · Zoltan Kluger / Government Press Office · JIMENA ↗
Hannah Arendt (1906–1975) teaching at Wesleyan University, where she held a fellowship in the early 1960s. A German Jewish political theorist who escaped Nazi Europe, she gave the postwar world much of its working vocabulary for mass violence — "totalitarianism," "the banality of evil," "the right to have rights." The Topic treats her life, her major books, and the arguments that still surround them.
Arendt teaching at Wesleyan, c. 1961 · via Wesleyan's official blog · Wesleyan ↗ · see also Hannah Arendt
On 24–25 May 1991, Israel airlifted roughly 14,000 Ethiopian Jews — the Beta Israel — to Israel in about 36 hours, aboard a fleet of stripped-down aircraft. The photograph shows a family on arrival. It is one chapter in the in-gathering of a community whose Jewish life in the Horn of Africa runs back many centuries.
Tsvika Israeli / Government Press Office of Israel · CC BY-SA 3.0 · JDC · Operation Solomon ↗ · see also Ethiopian Jewry — Beta Israel
Born on St. Thomas to a Sephardi Jewish family, Pissarro became one of the founders of French Impressionism and the only artist to exhibit in all eight Impressionist exhibitions between 1874 and 1886. Mentor to Cézanne, Gauguin, Van Gogh, and Seurat. His private letters express the difficulty of being a Jewish radical in France during the Dreyfus Affair, when he sided publicly with Dreyfus.
Works in the Met, the Musée d'Orsay, the National Gallery, the Art Institute of Chicago · View at the Musée d'Orsay ↗
Galician-Polish Jewish painter, a student of Jan Matejko in Kraków. Gottlieb painted Jewish subjects with the high seriousness Polish historical painters reserved for national mythology. His 1878 Jews Praying in the Synagogue on Yom Kippur is one of the masterworks of 19th-century Jewish self-representation. Died at twenty-three. His work hangs at the Tel Aviv Museum of Art and the National Museum, Warsaw.
Tel Aviv Museum of Art · National Museum, Warsaw · Tel Aviv Museum of Art ↗
Austro-Hungarian painter who specialized in scenes of Eastern European Jewish ritual life — Shabbat tables, rabbis at study, women lighting candles. His paintings are some of the most detailed surviving visual records of a civilization that was almost entirely destroyed within twenty years of his death. The Jewish Museum (Vienna) and the Israel Museum hold his work.
Image: Dreyfus Affair engraving, public domain · Jewish Museum Vienna and Israel Museum hold works by Kaufmann · Jewish Museum Vienna ↗
Born in Vitebsk in the Pale of Settlement, Chagall carried the visual world of Russian Jewish village life — the violinist on the roof, the floating bride, the rabbi with the Torah — into 20th-century European modernism. Survived both World Wars and the Holocaust in exile. His stained-glass commissions include the windows at Hadassah Hospital, the Metz Cathedral, and the UN headquarters.
Image: Marc Chagall photographed by Carl Van Vechten, 1941, Library of Congress. marcchagall.com → USHMM Holocaust Encyclopedia → Artsy: his Jewish identity → His Jewish identity in his paintings →
German Jewish artist who created Life? or Theatre?, a large autobiographical cycle of gouaches, while in hiding in the south of France during the Holocaust. She was deported to Auschwitz in 1943 and murdered at age twenty-six. The work survives in the collection of the Joods Museum in Amsterdam.
Image: Charlotte Salomon memorial plaque, Berlin-Charlottenburg, photograph by OTFW, CC BY-SA.
Both an artist and a primary source. Commissioned by the Jewish Joint Distribution Committee from roughly 1935 to 1938, Vishniac photographed the impoverished Jewish communities of central and Eastern Europe in the years before their destruction — Polish shtetls, Carpathian villages, the streets of a Berlin filling with Nazi signage. After 1947 he documented Displaced Persons camps and survivors rebuilding. His photographs are at once formal works of art and the most extensive surviving visual record of a world all but gone by 1945.
Explore the archive: Roman Vishniac Archive, International Center of Photography ↗ · YIVO-related photographic collections
The first complete printed Talmud, made in Venice by the printer Daniel Bomberg in the same years the city was building its ghetto. Its page layout — the core text in the center, ringed by layers of commentary — became the standard every later edition copied. Confinement on one island; a design that reached every Jewish library in the world.
Bomberg edition, Venice · public domain by age · Full story in The Ghetto System ↗
Printed by Holocaust survivors with the U.S. Army on German presses in 1948 — the first Talmud ever published on German soil. Its title page sets a line of hope above an image of barbed wire: a community that had just been targeted for destruction, immediately printing the book at the center of its learning, in the country that had tried to end it.
United States Holocaust Memorial Museum · USHMM ↗ · Full story in Liberation & the DPs ↗
Words & images that normalize prejudice
This gallery is different from the others. Its objects are not here to be admired — they are evidence, studied so the technique can be recognized. Each card explains how the words or images did their work: what they showed, what they hid, and how they made hatred feel like ordinary truth. The deeper analysis lives on The Evolution of Antisemitism.
Maurice Joly's Dialogue in Hell (1864) was a French satire attacking Napoleon III — nothing to do with Jews. Decades later, forgers lifted whole passages from it, swapped in Jewish villains, and published the result as the Protocols of the Elders of Zion, a fake plan for world domination. A London Times reporter exposed the plagiarism in 1921 by laying the two texts side by side.
Bibliothèque nationale de France · public domain · Full story in The Protocols ↗
The earliest fully preserved hostile Roman account of the Jews, written about forty years after the destruction of the Second Temple. Tacitus describes Jewish practices as "base and abominable" and Jews as regarding "the rest of mankind with all the hatred of enemies." A foundational text in the long history of European antisemitism — one of the primary sources Section 4 reads in full.
Image based on the public-domain Oxford 1912 translation title text · LacusCurtius (University of Chicago) ↗
The paired figures of the triumphant Church (Ecclesia, crowned and upright) and the defeated Synagogue (Synagoga, blindfolded, her staff broken, the tablets of the Law slipping from her hand) appear on the portals of major medieval cathedrals — the example here is from Strasbourg, c. 1230. The theology made visible: Judaism depicted as superseded and blind to truth. One of the most widespread vehicles by which Christian anti-Judaism was taught to a public that mostly could not read.
Strasbourg Cathedral (Musée de l'Œuvre Notre-Dame) · photograph, CC BY-SA · see also Adversus Judaeos
This illumination from the Codex Manesse depicts the Jewish poet Süsskind von Trimberg wearing the pointed Judenhut (Jewish hat). The Fourth Lateran Council of 1215 required Jews and Muslims to wear distinguishing dress so they could be told apart from Christians — the institutional ancestor of every later marking decree, including the yellow badge the Nazis revived seven centuries later. Here it appears almost matter-of-factly, marking the figure as Jewish.
Codex Manesse, Heidelberg University Library (Cod. Pal. germ. 848) · public domain Heidelberg University Library ↗
Carved on the exterior of medieval German churches — most notably at the Wittenberg Stadtkirche where Luther preached — these reliefs depict Jews suckling and feeding from a sow. Roughly thirty examples survive on churches across Germany, Austria, and Poland. The Wittenberg relief remains in place; in 2022 the German Federal Court of Justice declined to order its removal. Primary evidence of medieval and early-modern Christian antisemitism, still physically present.
Wittenberg Stadtkirche · Documented by the Stiftung Luthergedenkstätten · USHMM on antisemitism ↗
A woodcut from the Nuremberg Chronicle (1493) depicting the alleged ritual murder of a Christian child, Simon of Trent, by named members of the local Jewish community in 1475 — a charge that led to the torture and execution of the town's Jews. The "blood libel" was a recurring medieval and early-modern accusation with no basis in fact. Printed in one of the first mass-produced illustrated books, it shows how the printing press accelerated the spread of antisemitic myth.
Hartmann Schedel, Nuremberg Chronicle, 1493 · public domain · Library of Congress ↗
Pope Paul IV's bull codifying the ghetto system across the Papal States. The Latin opens: "Cum nimis absurdum sit et inconveniens" — "Since it is absurd and inconvenient" that Jews live among Christians as their equals. Confined Roman Jews to a walled quarter, required identifying yellow hats, restricted them to limited trades, mandated compulsory Catholic sermons. The full bull is preserved in the Vatican Apostolic Archive.
Vatican Apostolic Archive · Full text (Jewish Virtual Library) ↗
French popular illustrated weeklies — Le Petit Journal, La Libre Parole, Psst…! — published thousands of antisemitic caricatures during the twelve-year Dreyfus Affair. These visual records document how 19th-century racialized antisemitism circulated through mass-market print culture before reaching its administrative apotheosis in the 1930s. Held in the Bibliothèque nationale de France.
Bibliothèque nationale de France · BnF Gallica digital collection ↗
Poster for the 1937 Munich Nazi propaganda exhibition The Eternal Jew. Depicts a stereotyped Jewish figure carrying coins, a whip, and a map of the Soviet Union — combining the medieval coin-and-usury trope with 20th-century racial-conspiracy iconography. The exhibition drew approximately 412,000 visitors in five months. The 1940 film of the same name extended the propaganda into the Holocaust years. Held at USHMM.
United States Holocaust Memorial Museum · Holocaust Encyclopedia ↗
A page from Trau keinem Fuchs auf grüner Heid und keinem Jud bei seinem Eid ("Trust No Fox in the Green Meadow and No Jew on His Oath"), an antisemitic picture book published in 1936 by Julius Streicher's Stürmer-Verlag for German children. Children crowd a Der Stürmer display board to read the headlines — "The Jews are our misfortune" and "How the Jew cheats" — while caricatured Jewish figures are driven off. The regime taught the hatred to the young on purpose: the inverse of what an education is for.
United States Holocaust Memorial Museum · USHMM Holocaust Encyclopedia ↗
Between 1939 and 1945 Nazi Germany broadcast more than seventy antisemitic Arabic-language radio programs per week into the Middle East — from the Zeesen transmitter near Berlin and from regional outposts. Voice scripts, broadcast logs, and German foreign-ministry correspondence are preserved at USHMM and at the National Archives. The propaganda's regional reach and lasting effects are documented by the historian Jeffrey Herf.
Image: Volksempfänger ("people's receiver"), the mass-produced German radio of the period, shown to illustrate how broadcasts reached households · Smithsonian Institution · USHMM Holocaust Encyclopedia ↗
This 1935 chart, titled Die Nürnberger Gesetze ("The Nuremberg Laws"), turned the new race laws into a diagram. Using white and black circles to mark "German" and "Jewish" grandparents, it sorted people into legal categories — Deutschblütiger (German-blooded), Mischling (mixed), and Jude (Jew) — and spelled out which marriages were permitted or forbidden. It shows how a regime translated prejudice into bureaucratic rule, reducing human identity to a grid of dots.
Image: "Die Nürnberger Gesetze" racial chart, 1935 · shown as documented legal/propaganda evidence · USHMM Holocaust Encyclopedia ↗
Amin al-Husseini, the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, received by Hitler in Berlin in December 1941. From Berlin, al-Husseini broadcast antisemitic propaganda in Arabic across the Middle East and helped recruit Muslim units for the SS. The photograph documents a link between European Nazism and the wartime Arab world.
German Federal Archives (Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1987-004-09A) · CC-BY-SA · documented by USHMM ↗
Where to see more
Every object on this page lives in a real collection. These are the institutions whose archives, many of them free and fully digitized, hold far more than any single page can show. Each link goes to the institution's own catalog.
Why objects matter
Not only in their books, but in their coins, their walls, their manuscripts, and the worn objects of ordinary days. Each one is another way of asking a historical question — and often an answer no text thought to record. Every object here is held by a real institution, named and traceable; the same ones return throughout the Topics, where the questions they raise are followed further.
